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ibn Ruschd — Averroes

"Abu l-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ibn Ruschd, kurz Ibn Ruschd, latinisiert Averroes — auch Avérroes oder Averrhoës —, war ein andalusischer Philosoph, muslimischer Gelehrter, Jurist, Arzt und arabischsprachiger Schriftsteller. Er war Hofarzt der berberischen Dynastie der Almohaden von Marokko. Averroes verfasste eine medizinische Enzyklopädie und fast zu jedem Werk von Aristoteles einen Kommentar. In der christlichen Scholastik des Mittelalters, auf die er großen Einfluss ausübte, wurde er deshalb als 'Der Kommentator' bezeichnet, so wie Aristoteles gelegentlich nur 'der Philosoph' genannt wurde. Averroes war derart bedeutend, dass Raffael eine Darstellung des Averroes in sein Fresko Die Schule von Athen aufnahm. Averroes sah in der Logik die einzige Möglichkeit des Menschen, glücklich zu werden. Die aristotelische Logik lieferte für ihn die Möglichkeit, aus den Daten der Sinne zur Erkenntnis der Wahrheit zu kommen. Die Logik war für ihn das Gesetz des Denkens und der Wahrheit."

Quelle: Wikipedia
abgerufen 19. September 2021

We have narrated the earnest attempt made at the Conference of Ratisbon to find a basis of conciliation between the Protestant and the Popish churches. The way had been paved at Rome for this attempted reconcilement of the two creeds by an infusion of new blood into the College of Cardinals. Gaspar Contarini, a senator of Venice, who was known to hold opinions on the doctrine of justification differing very little, if at all, from those of Luther, was invested with the purple of the cardinalate. [...] Deputies were sent to the Ratisbon Conference, with instructions to make such concessions to the Reformers as might not endanger the fundamental principles of the Papacy, or strip the tiara of its supremacy. [...]



When the deputies returned from the Diet, and told Paul III that all their efforts to frame a basis of agreement between the two faiths had proved abortive, and that there was not a country in Christendom where Protestantism was not spreading, the Pope asked in alarm, "What then is to be done?" Cardinal Caraffa, and John Alvarez de Toledo, Bishop of Burgos, to whom the question was addressed, immediately made answer, Re-establish the Inquisition. [...] The bull re-establishing the Inquisition was published July 21st, 1542. The "Holy Office" revived with terrors unknown to it in former ages. It had now a plenitude of power. Its jurisdiction extended over all countries, and not a man in all Christendom, however exalted in rank or dignity, but was liable to be made answerable at its bar. The throne was no protection; the altar was no shield; withered age and blooming youth, matron and maiden, might any hour be seized by its familiars, and undergo the question in the dark underground chamber, where, behind a table, with its crucifix and taper, sat the inquisitor, his stern pitiless features surmounted by his black cowl, and all around the instruments of torture. Till the most secret thought had been wrung out of the breast, no mercy was to be shown. For the inquisitor to feel the least pity for his writhing victim was to debase himself. Such were the instructions drafted by Caraffa. [...]

"Caraffa," says the historian Ranke, "lost not a moment in carrying this edict into execution; he would have thought it waste of time to wait for the usual issue of means from the apostolic treasury, and, though by no means rich, he hired a house for immediate proceedings at his own expense; this he fitted up with rooms for the officers, and prisons for the accused, supplying the latter with strong bolts and locks, with dungeons, chains, blocks, and every other fearful appurtenance of his office. He appointed commissioners-general for the different countries." [...]

Distinguished as the land of the Renaissance, Italy seemed about to become yet more distinguished as the land of Protestantism. [...] In Padua, in Bologna, in Lucca, in Modena, in Rome, and in other cities of classic fame, some of the first families had embraced the [Protestant] gospel. Men of rank in the state, and of eminence in the church, persons of mark in the republic of letters, orators, poets, and some noble ladies, as eminent for their talents as for their birth, were not ashamed to enroll themselves among the disciples of that faith which the Lutheran princes had confessed at Augsburg, and which Calvin was propagating from the little town on the shores of the Leman, then beginning to attract the notice of the world. But of all the Protestant groups now forming in Italy, none equaled in respect of brilliance of rank, luster of talent, and devotion of faith, that which had gathered round Juan di Valdez on the lovely shore of Naples. [...]

The re-establishment of the Inquisition decided the question of the Reformation of Italy. The country, struck with this blow as it was lifting itself up, instantly fell back into the old gulf. It had become suddenly apparent that religious reform must be won with a great fight of suffering, and Italy had not strength to press on through chains, and dungeons, and scaffolds to the goal she wished to reach. The prize was glorious, she saw, but the price was great. Pallavicino has confessed that it was the Inquisition that saved Italy from lapsing into Protestantism. [...]



Of those who suffered martyrdom we shall mention only two—Mollio, a Bolognese professor, renowned throughout Italy for his learning and his pure life; and Tisserano, a native of Perugia. On the 15th of September, 1553, an assembly of the Inquisition, consisting of six cardinals with their episcopal assessors, was held with great pomp at Rome. A train of prisoners, with burning tapers in their hands, was led in before the tribunal. All of them recanted save Mollio and Tisserano. On leave being given them to speak, Mollio broke out, says McCrie, "in a strain of bold and fervid invective, which chained them to their seats, at the same time that it cut them to the quick." He rebuked his judges for their lewdness, their avarice, and their blood-thirsty cruelty, and concluded as follows: "'Wherefore I appeal from your sentence, and summon you, cruel tyrants and murderers, to answer before the judgment-seat of Christ at the last day, where your pompous titles and gorgeous trappings will not dazzle, nor your guards and torturing apparatus terrify us. And in testimony of this, take back that which you have given me.' In saying this, he threw the flaming torch which he held in his hand on the ground, and extinguished it. Galled, and gnashing upon him with their teeth, like the persecutors of the first Christian martyrs, the cardinals ordered Mollio, together with his companion, who approved of the testimony he had borne, to instant execution. They were conveyed, accordingly, to the Campo del Flor, where they died with the most pious fortitude."

Quelle: puritans.net/curriculum/Thy Kingdom Come II/chapter32:
Protestantism crushed in Italy and beyond through the Roman Inquisition
abgerufen: 23. Juli 2021

Italy in the early modern period was one of the wealthiest areas of Europe. Italy had a very advanced and sophisticated culture. Many Italians were appalled by the corruption of the Church and there had been several movements that challenged the supremacy of the Papacy in Italy since the early middle ages. However, despite these factors, the Reformation did not have any lasting impact on Italy. Indeed, there was only a very brief Italian Reformation and by 1600 Protestantism was effectively extinct in Italy. Catholicism was actually strengthened by the failed Italian Reformation. Protestantism failed to establish itself on the Peninsula for three reasons: the enormous political power of the Catholic Church, the states’ support for the Counter-Reformation and the Inquisition, and the popular attachment to Catholicism.

It has been widely stated that Italian society in the Renaissance was largely secular. This has been challenged by Burckhardt among others. The elite was largely secular and the humanist class of scholars was more interested in the classics than the bible. However, the majority of the country was religious. Italians went to mass and took part in religious festivals. The morals and the beliefs of the population were very much influenced by the Catholic Church. This is remarkable given the corruption and the decadence of the Papacy.

In the 1520s, there were the first reports of Lutherans as they were known in Italy. They were influenced by the works of Luther and they were sympathetic to his aims. The all believed that the Church was in need of Reform and challenged the authority of the Pope. The individuals were all influenced by humanism and sought a more personal relationship with God, in order to secure salvation. Many of the early ‘Protestants’ at first did not seek to set up another church, rather they sought to reform the Church. When it became apparent that the Catholic Church was not willing to engage in meaningful reforms they increasingly sought separation from the Church. Some Italian humanists translated some of the works of Luther and they were transmitted in clandestine networks. There were soon small groups of Lutherans in many Northern Italian cities, especially in the North. A small group of intellectuals also was later discovered to be in Naples.

The Reformation became more radical and many new groups emerged. These included the Calvinists and Anabaptists. The influence of these doctrines was mainly among the upper class. There were many communities of foreign traders in the Italian cities and especially in Venice. It seems that there was a large community of Anabaptists and Lutherans in Venice. Later a group who adhered to Nontrinitarians grew and gained a following among the educated. It appears that many foreign Protestants, especially French Huguenots fled to the cities of Italy to escape persecution at home. According to one Pope, groups of Protestants had been active in many areas of Italy. However, the influence of Protestantism was confined to small groups and not many common people outside urban areas accepted the movement or its doctrines. Indeed by 1600 there was no Protestant presence in Italy apart from some foreign mercenaries, diplomats and traders. The Catholic Church was actually stronger than in 1500. Many Italian Protestant had been forced into exile and they contributed greatly to the Reformation in Eastern Europe.

One of the reasons for the failure of Protestantism to make any inroads in Italy was because of persecution by the Catholic Church, usually with the support of the local rulers. The Church in Italy was corrupt but it was also powerful. Since the early middle ages, the Inquisition had not been very active. In general, the humanists had been able to hold many unorthodox views and opinions. The threat of Protestantism meant that the Inquisition was reformed and became much more active. The Inquisition was a series of institutions that were dedicated to ensuring religious conformity and the eradication of heretical beliefs. Soon the Inquisition was searching for Protestants and arresting them. Those who were suspected of holding views that were sympathetic to Protestantism were deemed to be heretics. They were placed often in special prisons, tortured and tried in Church courts. Protestants, if found guilty of heresy, could be sentenced to death. Many Protestants were executed in brutal ways.



Bartolomeo Fonzio, who translated some Protestant tracts into Italian, was executed by drowning and more were burnt at the stake. These executions all took place in public and the Italian population was left with little doubt about the dangers of even sympathizing with the Protestant cause. The Church in Italy was able to prevent the spread of Lutheran or other Protestant ideas unlike in Northern Europe. The Roman Catholic Hierarchy was able to suppress the teachings and the writings of the reformers. There was no discussion of the ideas of Luther or Calvin in the Universities of Italy. The Church was able to introduce a system of censorship that prevented Protestant literature and writings from reaching many Italians. The also operated an elaborate surveillance system: agents of the church would check people’s letters and ensured that the printing presses only produce works that conformed to Catholic teaching. Preaching was very important in the spread of Reformation but this was impossible in Italy. Any Italian or foreign Protestant who preached in Italy was liable to be arrested by the Inquisition.

stützt sich mathematisch auf die Komplexen Zahlen. So auch auf die Imaginäre Zahl , die Rechenoperationen erlaubt, die zu Ergebnissen außerhalb unserer alltäglichen Zahlenwelt führen wie dieses:

.

Keine Zahl, die wir im Alltag benutzen, könnte an Stelle des x eingesetzt werden. Die Benennung "Imaginäre Zahl" ist irreführend. Es handelt sich lediglich um eine Alternative zu unseren stillschweigend akzeptierten Zahlen. Welchen Wert hat, lässt sich in natürlichen Zahlen nicht ausdrücken. Ebenso wenig wie der tatsächliche Wert der Zahl π aus der Kreisberechnung exakt zu ermitteln ist. Ist die Definition von erst einmal über die Gleichung

gegeben, lässt sich mit auf abstrakte Art weiterrechnen.
nach: Komplexe Zahlen — Ein Leitprogramm in Mathematik
Christina Diehl, Marcel Leupp
Eidgenössische technische Hochschule Zürich, Januar 2010


war schon Descartes bekannt — wenn auch verhasst.

Quelle: Wikipedia Deutsch

Inzwischen liegen etliche Alternativmodelle zur Urknall-Thorie in der astrophysikalischen Diskussion vor, etwa:



Gemäß dieser Theorie käme es zu einer "Ermüdung" des Lichts auf seinem langen Weg durchs Universum, hervorgerufen durch eine starke Kraft, die es mit der Zeit bremst. Das würde die Rot-Verschiebung erklären. In dem Fall wäre das Universum statisch und ohne die angenommene Inflation. Diese Theorie hat derzeit wenig Anhänger. Allerdings könnte die Diskussion um die "Schwarze Materie" sie in modizizierter Form wiederbeleben.



Die Idee hier ist ein Flaschenhals, durch den unser Universum aufgrund eines epochalen Ereignis in einem benachbarten Universum zum Beispiel durch ein Schwarzes Loch hervorgegangen sein könnte. Das Universum wäre dynamisch, würde sich also ausdehnen, jedoch ohne dass es einen "Urknall"gegeben hätte.



Die postulierte "Schwarze Materie" resp. "Schwarze Energie" soll den errechneten riesigen Mangel an Massen im Universum kompensieren. Allerdings ist bislang noch völlig unbekannt, um was es sich hier handeln könnte. Die Theorie könnte zu völlig neuen Konzepten der Bewegung und Ausdehnung im Universum führen. Das Universum bliebe dynamisch, jedoch auch ohne "Urknall".



Parallel-Universen könnten gleichzeitig existieren, möglicherweise sogar am seben Ort. Sie könnten sich durchdringen, umschließen, nebeneinander liegen. Durch verschiedene Parameter von uns getrennt (Geschwindigkeit, Anti-Materie etc.), könnte jedoch die Gravitation bzw. Raumkrümmung "zu uns herüber" wirken und so Phänomene wie Ausdehnung und Beschleunigung hervorrufen. Auch die mangelnde Masse im Universum wäre so erklärbar, ohne dass es einer "Schwarzen Materie" bedürfte. Auch hier hätten wir es mit einem dynamischen Universum zu tun. Ein "Urknall" wäre ebenfalls nicht vonnöten.

All diesen Lösungsansätzen ist zu eigen, dass sie ohne den umstrittenen "Urknall" auskommen.

Und nebenher ist sogar der Psalm selbstreferenziell.

Quelle: aktuellen Fassung der Luther-Bibel